Role of second-sphere arginine residues in metal binding and metallocentre assembly in nitrile hydratases.

Two conserved second-sphere ßArg (R) residues in nitrile hydratases (NHase), that form hydrogen bonds with the catalytically essential sulfenic and sulfinic acid ligands, were mutated to Lys and Ala residues in the Co-type NHase from Pseudonocardia thermophila JCM 3095 (PtNHase) and the Fe-type NHase from Rhodococcus equi TG328-2 (ReNHase). Only five of the eight mutants (PtNHase ßR52A, ßR52K, ßR157A, ßR157K and ReNHase ßR61A) were successfully expressed and purified. Apart from the PtNHase ßR52A mutant that exhibited no detectable activity, the kcat values obtained for the PtNHase and ReNHase ßR mutant enzymes were between 1.8 and 12.4 s-1 amounting to <1% of the kcat values observed for WT enzymes. The metal content of each mutant was also significantly decreased with occupancies ranging from ∼10 to ∼40%. UV-Vis spectra coupled with EPR data obtained on the ReNHase mutant enzyme, suggest a decrease in the Lewis acidity of the active site metal ion. X-ray crystal structures of the four PtNHase ßR mutant enzymes confirmed the mutation and the low active site metal content, while also providing insight into the active site hydrogen bonding network. Finally, DFT calculations suggest that the equatorial sulfenic acid ligand, which has been shown to be the catalytic nucleophile, is protonated in the mutant enzyme. Taken together, these data confirm the necessity of the conserved second-sphere ßR residues in the proposed subunit swapping process and post-translational modification of the α-subunit in the α activator complex, along with stabilizing the catalytic sulfenic acid in its anionic form.

[Enzymatic properties and degradation characterization of a bis(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate hydrolase from Saccharothrix sp.]

The discovery of new enzymes for poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) degradation has been a hot topic of research globally. Bis-(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (BHET) is an intermediate compound in the degradation of PET and competes with PET for the substrate binding site of the PET-degrading enzyme, thereby inhibiting further degradation of PET. Discovery of new BHET degradation enzymes may contribute to improving the degradation efficiency of PET. In this paper, we discovered a hydrolase gene sle (ID: CP064192.1, 5085270-5086049) from Saccharothrix luteola, which can hydrolyze BHET into mono-(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (MHET) and terephthalic acid (TPA). BHET hydrolase (Sle) was heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli using a recombinant plasmid, and the highest protein expression was achieved at a final concentration of 0.4 mmol/L of isopropyl-ß-d-thiogalactoside (IPTG), an induction duration of 12 h and an induction temperature of 20 ℃. The recombinant Sle was purified by nickel affinity chromatography, anion exchange chromatography, and gel filtration chromatography, and its enzymatic properties were also characterized. The optimum temperature and pH of Sle were 35 ℃ and 8.0, and more than 80% of the enzyme activity could be maintained in the range of 25-35 ℃ and pH 7.0-9.0 and Co2+ could improve the enzyme activity. Sle belongs to the dienelactone hydrolase (DLH) superfamily and possesses the typical catalytic triad of the family, and the predicted catalytic sites are S129, D175, and H207. Finally, the enzyme was identified as a BHET degrading enzyme by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). This study provides a new enzyme resource for the efficient enzymatic degradation of PET plastics.

Structural and biochemical insights into a hyperthermostable urate oxidase from Thermobispora bispora for hyperuricemia and gout therapy.

Microbial urate oxidase has emerged as a potential source of therapeutic properties for hyperuricemia in arthritic gout and renal disease. The thermostability and long-term thermal tolerance of the enzyme need to be established to prolong its therapeutic effects. Here, we present the biochemical and structural aspects of a hyperthermostable urate oxidase (TbUox) from the thermophilic microorganism Thermobispora bispora. Enzymatic characterization of TbUox revealed that it was active over a wide range of temperatures, from 30 to 70 °C, with optimal activity at 65 °C and pH 8.0, which suggests its applicability under physiological conditions. Moreover, TbUox exhibits high thermostability from 10 to 65 °C, with Tm of 70.3 °C and near-neutral pH stability from pH 7.0 to 8.0 and high thermal tolerance. The crystal structures of TbUox revealed a distinct feature of the C-terminal loop extensions that may help with protein stability via inter-subunit interactions. In addition, the high thermal tolerance of TbUox may be contributed by the extensive inter-subunit contacts via salt bridges, hydrogen bonds, and hydrophobic interactions. The findings in this study provide a molecular basis for the thermophilic TbUox urate oxidase for application in hyperuricemia and gout therapy.

Cloning, Expression, and Characterization of a New Glycosaminoglycan Lyase from Microbacterium sp. H14.

Glycosaminoglycan (GAG) lyase is an effective tool for the structural and functional studies of glycosaminoglycans and preparation of functional oligosaccharides. A new GAG lyase from Microbacterium sp. H14 was cloned, expressed, purified, and characterized, with a molecular weight of approximately 85.9 kDa. The deduced lyase HCLaseM belonged to the polysaccharide lyase (PL) family 8. Based on the phylogenetic tree, HCLaseM could not be classified into the existing three subfamilies of this family. HCLaseM showed almost the same enzyme activity towards hyaluronan (HA), chondroitin sulfate A (CS-A), CS-B, CS-C, and CS-D, which was different from reported GAG lyases. HCLaseM exhibited the highest activities to both HA and CS-A at its optimal temperature (35 °C) and pH (pH 7.0). HCLaseM was stable in the range of pH 5.0-8.0 and temperature below 30 °C. The enzyme activity was independent of divalent metal ions and was not obviously affected by most metal ions. HCLaseM is an endo-type enzyme yielding unsaturated disaccharides as the end products. The facilitated diffusion effect of HCLaseM is dose-dependent in animal experiments. These properties make it a candidate for further basic research and application.

Utilization of naproxen by Amycolatopsis sp. Poz 14 and detection of the enzymes involved in the degradation metabolic pathway.

The pollution of aquatic environments by drugs is a problem for which scarce research has been conducted in regards of their removal. Amycolatopsis sp. Poz 14 presents the ability to biotransformation naphthalene at high efficiency, therefore, in this work this bacterium was proposed as an assimilator of naproxen and carbamazepine. Growth curves at different concentrations of naproxen and carbamazepine showed that Amycolatopsis sp. Poz 14 is able to utilize these drugs at a concentration of 50 mg L-1 as a source of carbon and energy. At higher concentrations, the bacterial growth was inhibited. The transformation kinetics of naproxen showed the total elimination of the compound in 18 days, but carbamazepine was only eliminated in 19.9%. The supplementation with cometabolites such as yeast extract and naphthalene (structure similar to naproxen) at 50 mg L-1, showed that the yeast extract shortened the naproxen elimination to 6 days and reached a higher global consumption rate compared to the naphthalene cometabolite. The biotransformation of carbamazepine was not improved by the addition of cometabolites. The partial sequencing of the genome of Amycolatopsis sp. Poz 14 detected genes encoding putative enzymes for the degradation of cyclic aromatic compounds and the activities of aromatic monooxygenase, catechol 1,2-dioxygenase and gentisate 1,2-dioxygenase exhibited their involving in the naproxen biodegradation. The HPLC-MS analysis detected the 5-methoxysalicylic acid at the end of the biotransformation kinetics. This work demonstrates that Amycolatopsis sp. Poz 14 utilizes naproxen and transforms it to 5-methoxysalicylic acid which is the initial compound for the catechol and gentisic acid metabolic pathway.

High-density immobilization of a ginsenoside-transforming ß-glucosidase for enhanced food-grade production of minor ginsenosides.

Use of recombinant glycosidases is a promising approach for the production of minor ginsenosides, e.g., Compound K (CK) and F1, which have potential applications in the food industry. However, application of these recombinant enzymes for food-grade preparation of minor ginsenosides are limited by the lack of suitable expression hosts and low productivity. In this study, Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC13032, a GRAS strain that has been used extensively for the industrial-grade production of additives for foodstuffs, was employed to express a novel ß-glucosidase (MT619) from Microbacterium testaceum ATCC 15829 with high ginsenoside-transforming activity. A cellulose-binding module was additionally fused to the N-terminus of MT619 for immobilization on cellulose, which is an abundant and safe material. Via one-step immobilization, the fusion protein in cell lysates was efficiently immobilized on regenerated amorphous cellulose at a high density (maximum 984 mg/g cellulose), increasing the enzyme concentration by 286-fold. The concentrated and immobilized enzyme showed strong conversion activities against protopanaxadiol- and protopanaxatriol-type ginsenosides for the production of CK and F1. Using gram-scale ginseng extracts as substrates, the immobilized enzyme produced 7.59 g/L CK and 9.42 g/L F1 in 24 h. To the best of our knowledge, these are the highest reported product concentrations of CK and F1, and this is the first time that a recombinant enzyme has been immobilized on cellulose for the preparation of minor ginsenosides. This safe, convenient, and efficient production method could also be effectively exploited in the preparation of food-processing recombinant enzymes in the pharmaceutical, functional food, and cosmetics industries.

Development of biodegradation process for Poly(DL-lactic acid) degradation by crude enzyme produced by Actinomadura keratinilytica strain T16-1

Background: Plastic waste is a serious problem because it is difficult to degrade, thereby leading to global environment problems. Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is a biodegradable aliphatic polyester derived from renewable resources, and it can be degraded by various enzymes produced by microorganisms. This study focused on the scale-up and evaluated the bioprocess of PLA degradation by a crude microbial enzyme produced by Actinomadura keratinilytica strain T16-1 in a 5 L stirred tank bioreactor. Results: PLA degradation after 72 h in a 5 L bioreactor by using the enzyme of the strain T16-1 under controlled pH conditions resulted in lactic acid titers (mg/L) of 16,651 mg/L and a conversion efficiency of 89% at a controlled pH of 8.0. However, the PLA degradation process inadvertently produced lactic acid as a potential inhibitor, as shown in our experiments at various concentrations of lactic acid. Therefore, the dialysis method was performed to reduce the concentration of lactic acid. The experiment with a dialysis bag achieved PLA degradation by weight loss of 99.93%, whereas the one without dialysis achieved a degradation of less than approximately 14.75%. Therefore, the dialysis method was applied to degrade a commercial PLA material (tray) with a conversion efficiency of 32%, which was 6-fold more than that without dialysis. Conclusions: This is the first report demonstrating the scale-up of PLA degradation in a 5 L bioreactor and evaluating a potential method for enhancing PLA degradation efficiency.

Site-directed mutation to improve the enzymatic activity of 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase for enhancing adipic acid biosynthesis.

Adipate is a linear C6 dicarboxylic acid, and is a crucial commercial material mainly used to produce the polymer nylon-6,6. In this study, the pathway producing adipate via a reverse reaction of degradation pathway of adipic acid was ported from Thermobifida fusca to Escherichia coli (E. coli). The pathway contains 6 genes: Tfu_0875, Tfu_2399, Tfu_0067, Tfu_1647, Tfu_2576 and Tfu_2577, which encodes ß-ketothiolase, 3-hydroxyacyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 3-hydroxyadipyl-CoA dehydrogenase, 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase and adipyl-CoA synthetase, respectively. Of the genes in this pathway, Tfu_1647 is the limited step. Here, we constructed a homology model of 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase and found that Lys295 and Glu334 were the active sites. We carried out ten site-directed mutations of these two residues including E334D, K295R, K295Q, K295Y, K295 F, E334R, E334H, E334 K, E334 W, and E334 F. The enzymatic activity of Tfu_1647 in pTrc99A-0067-1647 of E334D, E334 F, and E334R were much higher than that in the control. The Km values of E334D, E334 F, and E334R were significantly reduced compared with the control. The strain with E334D had the highest adipic acid titer (0.23 g/L) with 5.8% of the theoretical yield. The rational reconstruction of 5-carboxy-2-pentenoyl-CoA reductase is a potential approach in improving the enzymatic activity and titer of adipate.

Oxidative damage induced by H2O2 reveals SOS adaptive transcriptional response of Dietzia cinnamea strain P4.

The oxidative stress response of the highly resistant actinomycete Dietzia cinnamea P4 after treatment with hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) was assessed in order to depict the possible mechanisms underlying its intrinsic high resistance to DNA damaging agents. We used transcriptional profiling to monitor the magnitude and kinetics of changes in the mRNA levels after exposure to different concentrations of H2O2 at 10 min and 1 h following the addition of the stressor. Catalase and superoxide dismutase genes were induced in different ways, according to the condition applied. Moreover, alkyl hydroperoxide reductase ahpCF, thiol peroxidase, thioredoxin and glutathione genes were upregulated in the presence of H2O2. Expression of peroxidase genes was not detected during the experiment. Overall results point to an actinomycete strain endowed with a set of enzymatic defenses against oxidative stress and with the main genes belonging to a functional SOS system (lexA, recA, uvrD), including suppression of lexA repressor, concomitantly to recA and uvrD gene upregulation upon H2O2 challenge.

Targeting microplastic particles in the void of diluted suspensions.

Accumulation of microplastic in the environment and food chain will be a grand challenge for our society. Polyurethanes are widely used synthetic polymers in medical (e.g. catheters) and industrial products (especially as foams). Polyurethane is not abundant in nature and only a few microbial strains (fungi and bacteria) and enzymes (polyurethaneases and cutinases) have been reported to efficiently degrade polyurethane. Notably, in nature a long period of time (from 50 to >100 years depending on the literature) is required for degradation of plastics. Material binding peptides (e.g. anchor peptides) bind strongly to polymers such as polypropylene, polyethylene terephthalate, and polyurethane and can target specifically polymers. In this study we report the fusion of the anchor peptide Tachystatin A2 to the bacterial cutinase Tcur1278 which accelerated the degradation of polyester-polyurethane nanoparticles by a factor of 6.6 in comparison to wild-type Tcur1278. Additionally, degradation half-lives of polyester-polyurethane nanoparticles were reduced from 41.8 h to 6.2 h (6.7-fold) in a diluted polyester-polyurethane suspension (0.04% w/v).

Novel Endotype Xanthanase from Xanthan-Degrading Microbacterium sp. Strain XT11.

Under general aqueous conditions, xanthan appears in an ordered conformation, which makes its backbone largely resistant to degradation by known cellulases. Therefore, the xanthan degradation mechanism is still unclear because of the lack of an efficient hydrolase. Here, we report the catalytic properties of MiXen, a xanthan-degrading enzyme identified from the genus Microbacterium MiXen is a 952-amino-acid protein that is unique to strain XT11. Both the sequence and structural features suggested that MiXen belongs to a new branch of the GH9 family and has a multimodular structure in which a catalytic (α/α)6 barrel is flanked by an N-terminal Ig-like domain and by a C-terminal domain that has very few homologues in sequence databases and functions as a carbohydrate-binding module (CBM). Based on circular dichroism, shear-dependent viscosity, and reducing sugar and gel permeation chromatography analysis, we demonstrated that recombinant MiXen efficiently and randomly cleaved glucosidic bonds within the highly ordered xanthan substrate. A MiXen mutant free of the C-terminal CBM domain partially lost its xanthan-hydrolyzing ability because of decreased affinity toward xanthan, indicating the CBM domain assisted MiXen in hydrolyzing highly ordered xanthan via recognizing and binding to the substrate. Furthermore, side chain substituents and the terminal mannosyl residue significantly influenced the activity of MiXen via the formation of barriers to enzymolysis. Overall, the results of this study provide insight into the hydrolysis mechanism and enzymatic properties of a novel endotype xanthanase that will benefit future applications.IMPORTANCE This work characterized a novel endotype xanthanase, MiXen, and elucidated that the C-terminal carbohydrate-binding module of MiXen could drastically enhance the hydrolysis activity of the enzyme toward highly ordered xanthan. Both the sequence and structural analysis demonstrated that the catalytic domain and carbohydrate-binding module of MiXen belong to the novel branch of the GH9 family and CBMs, respectively. This xanthan cleaver can help further reveal the enzymolysis mechanism of xanthan and provide an efficient tool for the production of molecular modified xanthan with new physicochemical and physiological functions.

Cloning, expression, and characterization of novel GH5 endoglucanases from Thermobifida alba AHK119.

Thermobifida alba AHK119 exhibits sufficient filter paper-degradation activity in its culture supernatant. AHK119-bMs (1365 bp) and AHK119-E5 (1425 bp), which encode novel GH5 family endoglucanases, were cloned from the genomic DNA of T. alba AHK119. AHK119-bMs and AHK119-E5 consisted of 454 and 474 amino acid residues, respectively, in which the catalytic domain (CD) and carbohydrate-binding module (CBM) were connected by an accessary module (linker region). The amino acid sequences of CD and CBM of AHK119-bMs were most identical to those of endo-ß-mannanases (Man5As) from Thermobifidafusca TM51, T. halotolerans YIM90462, and T.cellulosilytica TB100. In contrast, the amino acid sequences of CD and CBM of AHK119-E5 were most identical to those of endo-1,4-ß-glucanases (cellulases; Cel5As) from T. fusca and T. halotolerans YIM90462. However, the linker region of both the genes shared low identities with those of Man5As and Cel5As. AHK119-bMs showed broader specificities toward cellulosic substrates than Man5As, whereas AHK119-E5 showed higher activity toward insoluble cellulosic substrates than toward soluble ones, which was conflicting when compared with other Cel5As. In addition, AHK119-bMs and AHK119-E5 showed different requirements for metal ions from those of Man5As and Cel5As, respectively. Therefore, both the enzymes were identified as novel GH5 endoglucanases, and the accessary modules seemed to play important roles in their enzymatic properties.

Continuous production of d-lactic acid from cellobiose in cell recycle fermentation using ß-glucosidase-displaying Escherichia coli.

The present study demonstrates continuous production of d-lactic acid from cellobiose in a cell recycle fermentation with a hollow fiber membrane using recombinant Escherichia coli constructed by deleting its pyruvate formate-lyase activating enzyme gene pflA and expressing a heterologous ß-glucosidase on its cell surface. The ß-glucosidase gene bglC from Thermobifida fusca YX was cloned into a cell surface display vector pGV3, resulting in pGV3-bglC. Recombinant E. coli JM109 harboring the pGV3-bglC showed ß-glucosidase activity (18.9 ± 5.7 U/OD600), indicating the cell surface functioning of mutant ß-glucosidase. pH-stat cultivation using d-lactic acid producer E. coli BW25113 (ΔpflA) harboring pGV3-bglC in minimum medium with 10 g/L cellobiose in a jar fermentor under anaerobic condition resulted in 5.2 ± 0.1 g/L of d-lactic acid was obtained after 84 h cultivation, indicating that the engineered E. coli produced d-lactic acid directly from cellobiose. For continuous d-lactic acid production, cell recycle fermentation was conducted under anaerobic condition and the culture was continuously ultrafiltrated with a hollow fiber cartridge. The permeate was drawn to the reservoir and a minimum medium containing 10 g/L cellobiose was fed to the fermentor at the same rate (dilution rate, 0.05 h-1). Thus, this system maintained the d-lactic acid production (4.3-5.0 g/L), d-lactic acid production rate (0.22-0.25 g/L/h), and showed no residual cellobiose in the culture during 72 h operation. Interestingly, the d-lactic acid production rate in cell recycle fermentation was more than 3 times higher than that in the batch operation (0.06 ± 0.00 g/L/h).

Xylanosomes produced by Cellulosimicrobium cellulans F16 were diverse in size, but resembled in subunit composition.

The hemicellulolytic enzyme system produced by Cellulosimicrobium cellulans strain F16 was resolved by ultracentrifugation and size exclusion chromatography. The particle size and molecular weight were determined by both dynamic light scattering and negative stain electron microscopy. The results showed that xylanosomes produced by strain F16 were found to have an apparent sedimentation coefficient of 28 S, were diverse in size (18-70 nm), molecular weight (11-78 MDa) and morphology, but resembled in subunit composition (SDS-PAGE and proteomic results). It is proposed that particles of 22 nm may be the basic unit, while 43 nm and 60 nm particles observed may be dimer and trimer of the basic unit, or xylanosomes with smaller size might be degradation products of larger size xylanosomes. Moreover, such xylanosomes are also found to have strong binding affinity toward water-insoluble substrates such as Avicel, birchwood xylan, and corn cob.

Fast Turbidimetric Assay for Analyzing the Enzymatic Hydrolysis of Polyethylene Terephthalate Model Substrates.

Synthetic plastics such as polyethylene terephthalate (PET) can be cooperatively degraded by microbial polyester hydrolases and carboxylesterases, with the latter hydrolyzing the low-molecular-weight degradation intermediates. For the identification of PET-degrading enzymes, efficient and rapid screening assays are required. Here a novel turbidimetric method in a microplate format for the fast screening of enzyme activities against the PET model substrates with two ester bonds bis-(2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate (BHET) and ethylene glycol bis-(p-methylbenzoate) (2PET) is reported. The carboxylesterase TfCa from Thermobifida fusca KW3 is used for validating the method. High correlation and regression coefficients between the experimental and fitted data confirm the accuracy and reproducibility of the method and its feasibility for analyzing the kinetics of the enzymatic hydrolysis of the PET model substrates. A comparison of the hydrolysis of BHET and 2PET by TfCa using a kinetic model for heterogeneous catalysis indicates that the enzyme preferentially hydrolyzes the less bulky molecule BHET. The high-throughput assay will facilitate the detection of novel enzymes for the biocatalytic modification or degradation of PET.

Assembly and Translocation of a CRISPR-Cas Primed Acquisition Complex.

CRISPR-Cas systems confer an adaptive immunity against viruses. Following viral injection, Cas1-Cas2 integrates segments of the viral genome (spacers) into the CRISPR locus. In type I CRISPR-Cas systems, efficient "primed" spacer acquisition and viral degradation (interference) require both the Cascade complex and the Cas3 helicase/nuclease. Here, we present single-molecule characterization of the Thermobifida fusca (Tfu) primed acquisition complex (PAC). We show that TfuCascade rapidly samples non-specific DNA via facilitated one-dimensional diffusion. Cas3 loads at target-bound Cascade and the Cascade/Cas3 complex translocates via a looped DNA intermediate. Cascade/Cas3 complexes stall at diverse protein roadblocks, resulting in a double strand break at the stall site. In contrast, Cas1-Cas2 samples DNA transiently via 3D collisions. Moreover, Cas1-Cas2 associates with Cascade and translocates with Cascade/Cas3, forming the PAC. PACs can displace different protein roadblocks, suggesting a mechanism for long-range spacer acquisition. This work provides a molecular basis for the coordinated steps in CRISPR-based adaptive immunity.

The alginate lyase from Isoptericola halotolerans CGMCC 5336 as a new tool for the production of alginate oligosaccharides with guluronic acid as reducing end.

Alginate oligosaccharides are depolymerization products of alginate by enzymatic degradation or physicochemical treatments. Alginate lyase has received great interests due to its use in oligosaccharide preparation. The substrate specificity of alginate lyase directly determines the type and degree of polymerization of alginate oligosaccharides. In this paper, the degradation products of Alginate lyase from Isoptericola halotolerans CGMCC 5336 were size-fractionated by gel filtration chromatography and the fractions were characterized by TLC, HPLC, MS and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The Mw values for these fractions were 352, 528, 704 Da which represented di-, tri-, and tetrasaccharide fragments, respectively. The 1H NMR revealed that the non-reducing ends of these oligosaccharides were 4-deoxy-L-erythro-hex-4-enepyranosyluronate and the reducing ends of these oligosaccharides were all guluronic acid. Therefore, it is believed that the alginate lyase produced by Isoptericola halotolerans CGMCC 5336 was capable of performing ß elimination on guluronic acid residue so that low molecular weight oligosaccharides with guluronic acid on the reducing end could be obtained in this way.

Fluorescent Benzothiazinone Analogues Efficiently and Selectively Label Dpre1 in Mycobacteria and Actinobacteria.

Benzothiazinones (BTZ) are highly potent bactericidal inhibitors of mycobacteria and the lead compound, BTZ043, and the optimized drug candidate, PBTZ169, have potential for the treatment of tuberculosis. Here, we exploited the tractability of the BTZ scaffold by attaching a range of fluorophores to the 2-substituent of the BTZ ring via short linkers. We show by means of fluorescence imaging that the most advanced derivative, JN108, is capable of efficiently labeling its target, the essential flavoenzyme DprE1, both in cell-free extracts and after purification as well as in growing cells of different actinobacterial species. DprE1 displays a polar localization in Mycobacterium tuberculosis, M. marinum, M. smegmatis, and Nocardia farcinica but not in Corynebacterium glutamicum. Finally, mutation of the cysteine residue in DprE1 in these species, to which BTZ covalently binds, abolishes completely the interaction with JN108, thereby highlighting the specificity of this fluorescent probe.

Enzymatic hydrolysis of PET: functional roles of three Ca2+ ions bound to a cutinase-like enzyme, Cut190*, and its engineering for improved activity.

Cut190 from Saccharomonospora viridis AHK190 (Cut190) is the only cutinase that exhibits inactive (Ca2+-free) and active (Ca2+-bound) states, although other homologous cutinases always maintain the active states (Ca2+-free and bound). The X-ray crystallography of the S176A mutant of Cut190* (Cut190_S226P/R228S) showed that three Ca2+ ions were bound at sites 1-3 of the mutant. We analyzed the roles of three Ca2+ ions by mutation and concluded that they play different roles in Cut190* for activation (sites 1 and 3) and structural and thermal stabilization (sites 2 and 3). Based on these analyses, we elucidated the mechanism for the conformational change from the Ca2+-free inactive state to the Ca2+-bound active state, proposing the novel Ca2+ effect on structural dynamics of protein. The introduction of a disulfide bond at Asp250 and Glu296 in site 2 remarkably increased the melting temperatures of the mutant enzymes by more than 20-30 °C (while Ca2+-bound) and 4-14 °C (while Ca2+-free), indicating that a disulfide bond mimics the Ca2+ effect. Replacement of surface asparagine and glutamine with aspartic acid, glutamic acid, or histidine increased the melting temperatures. Engineered mutant enzymes were evaluated by an increase in melting temperatures and kinetic values, based on the hydrolysis of poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) and microfiber polyethylene terephthalate (PET). A combined mutation, Q138A/D250C-E296C/Q123H/N202H, resulted in the highest thermostability, leading to the maximum degradation of PET film (more than 30%; approximately threefold at 70 °C, compared with that of Cut190* at 63 °C).

Identification and characterization of a highly S-enantioselective halohydrin dehalogenase from Tsukamurella sp. 1534 for kinetic resolution of halohydrins.

Halohydrin dehalogenases are remarkable enzymes which possess promiscuous catalytic activity and serve as potential biocatalysts for the synthesis of chiral halohydrins, epoxides and ß-substituted alcohols. The enzyme HheC exhibits a highly R enantioselectivity in the processes of dehalogenation of vicinal halohydrins and ring-opening of epoxides, which attracts more attentions in organic synthesis. Recently dozens of novel potential halohydrin dehalogenases have been identified by gene mining, however, most of the characterized enzymes showed low stereoselectivity. In this study, a novel halohydrin dehalogenase of HheA10 from Tsukamurella sp. 1534 has been heterologously expressed, purified and characterized. Substrate spectrum and kinetic resolution studies indicated the HheA10 was a highly S enantioselective enzyme toward several halohydrins, which produced the corresponding epoxides with the ee (enantiomeric excess) and E values up to >99% and >200 respectively. Our results revealed the HheA10 was a promising biocatalyst for the synthesis of enantiopure aromatic halohydrins and epoxides via enzymatic kinetic resolution of racemic halohydrins. What's more important, the HheA10 as the first individual halohydrin dehalogenase with the highly S enantioselectivity provides a complementary enantioselectivity to the HheC.